Though Safflower flowers find mention in of
Ayurveda and in European and Japanese pharmacopoeias, the interest in this crop has been
rekindled in the last few years, says 
Dr Nandini Nimbkar
Safflower, Carthamus tinctorius L. is a thistle-like herb
belonging to the family Asteraceae or Compositae. It is one of
humanity’s oldest crops cultivated in India mainly for oil from the
seeds and a reddish dye from the flowers. Nonetheless, it has mainly
remained a minor crop grown on small plots for the growers’ personal
use. Though, safflower flowers have been used in preparations of
ayurvedic medicines in India and also merit mention in European and
Japanese pharmacopoeias, the interest in this crop has been rekindled in
the last few years as the medicinal use of these flowers in China has
become more widely known. China has a significant area under safflower
plantation, but it is grown almost exclusively for its flowers, which
are harvested for use in traditional medicines, and the production is
not included in international crop estimate reports. Safflower flowers
are used in China for the treatment of many illnesses as well as in
‘tonic tea’.
Production in India
India is the
largest producer of safflower (2.0 lakh tonnes) in the world with
highest acreage (4.3 lakh hectares) but with an average productivity of
only 465 kg/ha. Poor crop management under input-starved conditions is
the most important reason for such low per hectare yields. It is mainly
grown in Maharashtra, Karnataka and parts of Andhra Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, etc. Maharashtra and Karnataka are the two most
important safflower growing states accounting for 72 and 23 per cent of
area and 63 and 35 per cent of production, respectively.
Safflower is now mainly grown in India for its much-valued edible
oil. Safflower produces oil rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids
(linoleic acid 78 per cent), which play an important role in reducing
blood cholesterol level and is considered as a healthy cooking medium.
Safflower oil is suitable where high level of stability at low
temperature is required as in frozen desserts. It is also used in infant
foods and liquid nutrition formulations.
The
safflower crop is usually grown in the rabi or winter season from
October/November to March/April, generally as an intercrop with cereals
such as wheat and sorghum. It is one of the most important crops for
marginal farmers. Traditionally it is grown as a rain-fed crop on
residual soil moisture. However, research carried out at the Nimbkar
Agricultural Research Institute (NARI) at Phaltan during the 1960s
showed that safflower has a potential to produce as much as 4.0
tonnes/ha seed yield under irrigated conditions. NARI became the first
centre for irrigated safflower research under the All India Co-ordinated
Research Project on Oilseeds in 1975. It was shown that just one or two
irrigations given to safflower crop at the critical growth stages could
boost its seed yield by as much as 50 per cent.
NARI
was also a pioneer in starting safflower hybrid development in India.
The first non-spiny hybrid in India NARI-NH-1 (PH-6) was developed at
NARI and released in 2001. Efforts to popularise safflower flowers as
herbal tea in India were also pioneered at NARI. Their use for medicinal
purposes is steadily increasing and this is expected to help farmers get
increased remuneration from their crop.
Conditions for
Cultivation
Although safflower has gained the reputation of being a
drought-resistant crop, it is basically true only as far as its
dependence on rainfall is concerned. With its deep taproot capable of
penetrating to a depth of 2-3 metre, it can draw moisture from deep in
the subsoil from levels not available to a majority of crops. Although
grown without irrigation over the major portion of its range, as a
large-scale commercial crop highest yields are obtained only under some
type of irrigation. The crop may use considerable amounts of soil
moisture, but it cannot survive standing water for even a few hours in
warm weather.
The
“allergy” which safflower has to “wet feet” is partly due to the rapid
spread of soil borne pathogens such as Fusarium, but also because
anaerobic conditions cause plant death very quickly. Excess rainfall,
especially after flowering begins, contributes to a vast array of leaf
and capitulum’s diseases, which reduce yields and can cause a
substantial crop loss. Well-drained, deep, fertile, sandy loam soils
support maximum safflower yields. In heavy clay soils, crusting may
reduce emergence of seedlings and higher than normal seed rates may be
needed.
The
safflower plant yields several products. Some of the important ones
are:
Safflower seed oil:
Around the world, safflower is mainly grown for its edible oil, which
can be used, for cooking and in preparation of mayonnaise, salad oil and
margarine. Safflower oil has the highest ratio of
polyunsaturated/saturated fatty acids of any oil available. It has been
observed on administration to patients with ‘Hypercholesterolemia’, the
unsaturated fatty acids of safflower lower the serum cholesterol level.
This effect is variable and not discernible in patients with normal or
near normal cholesterol levels, nor does it occur unless the total fatty
acid intake is reduced. Though clinical value of safflower oil is still
considered to be incompletely proven, there is a considerable health
food market for safflower oil, especially in North America, Germany and
Japan.
Oil
levels in the seed ranging from 10 to 50 per cent have been reported
from around the world for safflower.
The commercialisation of safflower in the 1950s was driven, in part, by
the paint and varnish industry. The oil’s properties contribute to
unsurpassed quality in paints, alkyd resins and coatings. However, less
costly petroleum products and a shift to water-based paints have limited
their use.
Safflower dye: Until this
century, when cheaper aniline dyes became available, safflower was
mainly grown for dye. The water-soluble yellow dye, carthamidin, and a
water-insoluble red dye, carthamin, which is readily soluble in alkali,
can be obtained from safflower florets. Dye manufacture has virtually
ceased in Asia, but dye is still prepared on a small-scale for
traditional and religious occasions. Carthamin is found in the florets
to the extent of 0.3-0.6 per cent and imparts a bright red colour to
cotton and silk fabric. In order to get a better colouring effect from
carthamin, the yellow colour first has to be separated from it. For
extracting the dye, fully-grown flower heads are collected every second
or third day before they fade. They are then dried in the shade. Florets
can be collected, after the crop ripens, so that dye and oilseed can be
obtained from the same crop. Colouring 1 kg of cotton yarn crimson
requires 1 kg of dye, rose pink requires 500 gm, and light pink, 250 gm.
There is currently in many countries a reaction against the use of
chemicals for colouring of yarn, with an increased use of naturally
coloured cotton. This has also resulted in a small revival for safflower
dyes.
| Table 1 : Performance of released safflower
varieties and hybrids developed at NARI in comparison with the
checks |
| Variety/ hybrid |
Seed yield (kg/ha) |
per cent increase over check |
Oil yield (kg/ha) |
per cent increase over check |
Flower yield (kg/ha) |
per cent increase over check |
| Nira (NRS-209) |
1,576 |
17.19 (Bhima) |
512 |
26.93 |
– |
– |
| NARI-6 |
1,024 |
16.8 (JSI-7) |
304 |
25.97 (JSI-7) |
125 |
20 (JSI-7) |
| NARI-NH-1 (PH-6) |
1,936 |
11.36
(A-1) |
628 |
30.74 (A-1) |
192 |
118.18 (JSI-7) |
Safflower cake: The meal
left after oil extraction from the decorticated seed is used for animal
feed, while that obtained from un-decorticated seeds is used for manure.
The cake contains about 7.9 per cent nitrogen, 1.9 per cent potash and
2.2 per cent phosphoric acid and its application as manure is supposed
to greatly improve the physical properties of heavy soils. Although
cattle apparently find safflower cake palatable, its bitter taste maker
it unacceptable to humans. Protein isolates prepared from debittered
meal can be used to fortify bread, pasta and nutritional drinks. Only
lysine is limiting, while methionine and isoleucine are
borderline.
Safflower vegetable and
fodder: The tender leaves, shoots and thinnings of
safflower are valued as pot-herb and salad. They are high in vitamin A,
iron, phosphorus and calcium. Bundles of young seedlings are commonly
sold as a green vegetable in markets in India and some neighbouring
countries.
Safflower can be grazed or stored as hay or silage. The forage is
palatable and its feed value and yields are similar to or better than
those for oats or alfalfa. Tests have shown that fairly good seed
production from a ratoon crop is possible by cutting at about 3-4 cm
above ground at 30-45 days after planting in crops planted before the
end of September.
Safflower food colour:
Addition of safflower florets to food is a widespread and ancient
tradition. Health concerns regarding synthetic food colourants has
increased interest in safflower-derived food colouring in recent times.
Carthamin is the only chalkone-type pigment suggested for colouring
foods. It finds use in colouring cakes, biscuits, butter, ice cream,
rice, soup, sauces, bread and pickles, yellow to bright orange. Both
safflower yellow and carthamin can be used as non-toxic food colourants.
True saffron, which is probably the world’s costliest spice, is quite
commonly substituted or adulterated with safflower florets due to the
similarity in their appearance.
| Table 2 : Characteristics of released
safflower varieties and hybrids developed at NARI in comparison
with the checks |
Sr.
No. |
Variety / hybrid |
Year of release |
Average seed yield (kg/ha) |
Oil content (per cent) |
Reaction to diseases and pests |
Days to maturity |
| 1 |
Nira (NRS-209) |
1986 |
1,576 |
31.5 |
– |
130 |
| 2 |
NARI-6 |
2000 |
1,024 |
35 |
Tolerant to alternaria and
cercospora |
137 |
| 3 |
NARI-NH-1 (PH-6) |
2001 |
1,936 |
35 |
Moderately resistant to cercospora and wilt
and tolerant to alternaria and aphids |
140 |
| 4 |
A-1 (National check) |
1969 |
1,716 |
30 |
– |
128 |
| 5 |
Bhima (Local check) |
1982 |
1,305 |
30 |
– |
135 |
| 6 |
JSI-7 (Non-spiny check) |
1990 |
852 |
30 |
– |
175-180 |
Safflower medicine: In India
flowers of safflower are regarded as stimulant, sedative and as a
promoter of menstrual discharge. In large doses, they are laxative. In
China, safflower is grown almost exclusively for its flowers, which are
used in treatment of many illnesses as well as in ‘tonic tea’. The main
active ingredient in safflower medicines is safflower yellow, which is
water-soluble, but alcohol extracts are used in some preparations. Many
clinical and laboratory studies support the use of safflower medicines
for menstrual problems, cardiovascular disease and pain and swelling
associated with trauma. Safflower yellow is present in the dried florets
to the extent of 26-36 per cent.
Research on safflower at the Nimbkar Agricultural Research
Institute (NARI) commenced in mid-1960s even before the institute was
officially registered in 1968. The safflower research and development at
NARI during last 35 years has been devoted to developing suitable
agro-production technologies and varieties and hybrids for limited
irrigation situations.
Development of
Varieties
The major emphasis of the variety improvement
programme at NARI is on developing varieties with enhanced oil and seed
yield and better tolerance to pests and diseases in addition to
responsiveness to limited irrigation. The following cultivars developed
at NARI have been released by the government for commercial cultivation
(Tables 1 and 2).
Nira
(NRS-209): Nira was released for cultivation under protective irrigation
in the state of Maharashtra during 1986. It is a spiny cultivar and
gives about 17 per cent higher seed yield than the safflower cultivar
Bhima, which is the most widely cultivated safflower variety in the
state. It gives seed yield of 15 to 18 q/ha under irrigation and 12 to
15 q/ha under rain-fed conditions. It contains 30-33 per cent oil in its
seeds. Due to its earliness, it escapes pest infestation and hence is
considered to be moderately tolerant to different pests.
| The major emphasis of the variety improvement
programme at NARI is on developing varieties with enhanced oil and
seed yield and better tolerance to pests and
diseases |
NARI-6: This is a non-spiny cultivar released in 2,000 for
cultivation in rain-fed areas of the country (Fig. 1). NARI-6 on an
average produces a seed yield of 10 to 11 q/ha under rain-fed
conditions. It contains 35 per cent oil in its seeds. It also yields 1
to 1.5 q flowers/ha. It possesses greater drought tolerance than the
other cultivars, which are presently cultivated.
Hybrid Development
NARI pioneered
hybrid development in safflower in India during 1983-84. The preliminary
evaluation of these hybrids based on genetic male sterility showed them
to give 19 per cent higher seed yield than the national check A-1 in the
multi-location trials of All India Co-ordinated Research Project on
oilseeds. However, these hybrids could not be commercialised due to the
undesirable characteristics of the genetic male sterile lines available.
This led to the thorough search of the available germ plasm at NARI and
a programme for development of several male sterile (MS) lines. These MS
lines are high-yielding, uniform and possess desirable traits. They are
being exploited for hybrid development at NARI.
| Table 3 : Analysis of safflower flowers
of NARI-NH-1 |
| Sr. No. |
Parametre |
Value |
| 1 |
Protein, per cent by
wt.
|
10.4 |
| 2 |
Total sugars, per cent by wt.
|
11.8 |
| 3 |
Zinc, (mg per cent)
|
2.6 |
| 4 |
Sodium, (mg per cent) |
17.0 |
| 5 |
Potassium, (mg per
cent)
|
3,264.0 |
| 6 |
Iron, (mg per
cent) |
42.5 |
| 7 |
Calcium, (mg per cent) |
708.0 |
| 8 |
Magnesium, (mg per
cent) |
142.0 |
| 9 |
Copper, (mg per cent) |
1.1 |
| 10 |
Cadmium, (mg/kg)
|
0.33 |
| 11 |
Manganese, (mg per
cent) |
4.7 |
| 12 |
Lead, (mg/kg) |
1.84 |
| 13 |
Arsenic,
(mg/kg) |
Nil |
In
2001 for the first time a non-spiny hybrid NARI-NH-1 (PH-6) was released
for cultivation in all the safflower growing regions of the country. It
gives a seed yield of 18 to 20 q/ha under irrigation, has 35 per cent
oil in its seeds and produces nearly 2 q flowers/ha (Tables 1 and
2).
Identification and release of the non-spiny variety and hybrid in
safflower is expected to be a boon to farmers due to the extra income
they are expected to give the farmers from the flowers. Due to their
non-spiny nature it is easy to harvest and thresh as also pick flowers
from them. This will not only increase their popularity among
traditional farmers who had discontinued safflower cultivation due to
reluctance of labourers to carry out any operations in it due to its
spiny nature, but will also increase the spread of safflower in
non-traditional areas.
The
success of hybrids of any crop depends upon the simplicity and cost
effectiveness of hybrid seed production. Thus at NARI considerable
efforts have been spent on perfecting the technology of hybrid seed
production in safflower.
However, there are some inherent problems associated with the
seed production in genetic male sterility system, one of them being its
labour-intensive nature. Ultimately only the cytoplasmic male
sterility-based system can provide the most feasible way of hybrid seed
production especially in spiny hybrids of safflower. Therefore, efforts
are underway at NARI to develop cytoplasmic male sterility in safflower,
and to identify suitable maintainer and restorer genotypes for producing
highly productive hybrids.
Battery-Operated Flower Collector
The manual
collection of safflower flowers from spiny varieties is not very
cost-effective due to the presence of spines on the capitulum. Thus, a
knapsack-type lightweight battery-powered flower collector has been
developed to enable the collection of dried flowers from spiny safflower
plants. The battery of this collector can be charged, using a solar
photovoltaic module.
Popularisation of Safflower
To commercialise safflower flowers in India,
efforts have been initiated to popularise them as an herbal health tea
for curing several chronic diseases. Regular users of this tea have
reported its usefulness in alleviating diseases like hypertension,
spondylosis, angina, arthritis, constipation, menstrual disorders and
hypercholesterolemia. Analysis of flowers for nutritional qualities was
conducted recently at the Central Food Technological Research Institute
(CFTRI) at Mysore and the results of this investigation are given in
Table 3. They were found to contain substantial quantities of
amino-acids and minerals such as potassium, calcium, magnesium and iron.
Package of Practices
In general,
highest seed yields could be obtained from safflower when
- Safflower was planted in the first week of October.
- Plant population of about 1,00,000/hectare was maintained.
- Fertiliser containing 60 kg/ha nitrogen in split dose (30 kg at
the time of planting and 30 kg after 1 month of planting) and 30kg/ha
phosphorus was applied to the crop.
- Irrigating twice – first at elongation (35 days after sowing)
and second at flowering stage (75 days after sowing) were applied, in
addition to a pre-sowing irrigation.
- Crop was protected against diseases such as alternaria leaf
spot and wilt and insects such as aphids and heliothis.
Seeds
of spiny variety Nira, non-spiny variety NARI-6 and non-spiny hybrid
NARI-NH-1 are available at NARI. NARI is also ready to transfer the
technology of seed production to any interested parties.
The
author Dr. N. Nimbkar has an M.S. and Ph.D. in agronomy from University
of Florida, Gainesville, USA and is the President, Nimbkar Agricultural
Research Institute, Phaltan.
